The Stroop effect refers to the fact that naming the color of the first set of words is easier and quicker than the second.

In psychology Psychology is the scientific study of human or other animal mental functions and behaviors. In this field, a professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist. Psychologists are classified as social or behavioral scientists. Psychological research can be considered either basic or applied. Psychologists attempt to understand the, the Stroop effect is a demonstration of the reaction time Reaction time is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response. RT is often used in experimental psychology to measure the duration of mental operations, an area of research known as mental chronometry. In psychometric psychology it is considered to be an index of speed of processing. That of a task. When the name of a color (e.g., "blue," "green," or "red") is printed in a color not denoted by the name (e.g., the word "red" printed in blue ink instead of red ink), naming the color of the word takes longer and is more prone to errors than when the color of the ink matches the name of the color. The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop John Ridley Stroop was an American psychologist. y, Tennessee]], USA. He developed a color-word task, named after him (the Stroop effect), to demonstrate interference in attention who first published the effect in English in 1935.[1] The effect had previously been published in 1929, but only in Germany.[2][3][4] The original paper has been one of the most cited papers in the history of experimental psychology Experimental psychology is a methodological approach rather than a subject and encompasses varied fields within psychology. Experimental psychologists have traditionally conducted research, published articles, and taught classes on neuroscience, developmental psychology, sensation, perception, attention, consciousness, learning, memory, thinking,, leading to more than 700 replications.[4] The effect has been used to create a psychological test that is widely used in clinical practice and investigation.

Contents

Original experiment

Stimulus 1: Purple Brown Red Blue Green

Stimulus 2: Purple Brown Red Blue Green

Stimulus 3: ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀ ▀

Examples of the three stimuli and colors used for each of the activities of the original Stroop article.[1]

Figure 1 from Experiment 2 of the original description of the Stroop Effect (1935). 1 is the time that it takes to name the color of the dots while 2 is the time that it takes to say the color when there is a conflict with the written word.[1]

The effect is named after John Ridley Stroop John Ridley Stroop was an American psychologist. y, Tennessee]], USA. He developed a color-word task, named after him (the Stroop effect), to demonstrate interference in attention, who published the effect in English in 1935 in an article entitled Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions this includes three different experiments.[1] However, the effect was first published in 1929 in German, and its roots can be followed back to works of James McKeen Cattell James McKeen Cattell , American psychologist, was the first professor of psychology in the United States at the University of Pennsylvania and long-time editor and publisher of scientific journals and publications, most notably the journal Science and Wilhelm Wundt Wilhelm Maximilian Wundt was a German medical doctor, psychologist, physiologist, philosopher, and professor, known today as one of the founding figures of modern psychology. He is widely regarded as the "father of experimental psychology". In 1879, Wundt founded one of the first formal laboratories for psychological research at the in the nineteenth century.[2][3][4]

In his experiments, J. R. Stroop administered several variations of the same test for which three different kind of stimuli were created. In the first one, names of colors appeared in black ink. In the second, names of colors appeared in a different ink than the color named. Finally in the third one, there were squares of a given color.[1]

In the first experiment, stimuli 1 and 2 were used. The task required the participants to read the written color names of the words independently of the color of the ink (for example, they would have to read "purple" no matter what the color of its ink was). In the second experiment, stimulus 2 and 3 were used, and participants were required to say the color of the letters independently of the written word with the second kind of stimulus and also name the color of the dot squares. If the word "purple" was written in red, they would have to say "red," but not "purple"; when the squares were shown, the participant would have to say its color. Stroop, in the third experiment, tested his participants at different stages of practice at the tasks and stimulus used in the first and second experiments, to account for the effects of association.[1]

Stroop identified a large increase in the time taken by participants to complete the color reading in the second task compared to the naming of the color of the squares in experiment 2 while this delay did not appear in the first experiment. Such interference was explained by the automation of reading, where the mind automatically determines the semantic Semantics is the study of meaning, usually in language. The word "semantics" itself denotes a range of ideas, from the popular to the highly technical. It is often used in ordinary language to denote a problem of understanding that comes down to word selection or connotation. This problem of understanding has been the subject of many meaning of the word (it reads the word "red" and thinks of the color "red"), and then must override this first impression with the identification of the color of the word (the ink is a color other than red), a process that is not automatized.[1]

Unlike researchers performing the Stroop test that is most commonly used in psychological evaluation,[5] J.R Stroop never compared the time used for reading black words and the time needed for naming colors that conflicted with the written word.

Modifications

As one of the most referenced papers in experimental psychology, the test has also been further modified to investigate very different phenomena.[4]

In the study of interference theory Interference Theory states that interference occurs when the learning of something new causes forgetting of older material on the basis of competition between the two. There are 3 main kinds of Interference Theory: Proactive, Retroactive and Output. The main assumption of Interference Theory is that the stored memory is intact but unable to be, the most commonly used procedure has been similar to Stroop's second experiment in which subjects are tested on naming colors of incompatible words and of control patches; however the first experiment (reading words in black versus incongruent colors) has received much less interest. In both cases, the interference score is expressed as the difference between the times needed to read each of the two types of cards.[4] Usually lists of stimulus are used, but time measures for individual words permit more control on research variables.[4] Rather than naming or reading stimuli aloud, subjects have also been asked to sort stimuli into categories.[4] Different characteristics of the stimulus such as ink colors or direction of words have also been systematically varied.[4] None of all these modifications eliminates the effect of interference.[4]

The Stroop task has been employed to study frontal function and attention Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of processing resources in brain imaging Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/pharmacology of the brain. It is a relatively new discipline within medicine and neuroscience/psychology studies.[6] Speaking is not possible in the scanner because it moves the head, so a number theme is often used instead. For instance, three words may be displayed that read "two" and the participant must press three on their button box.[7]

The test has additionally been modified to include other sensory modalities In semiotics, a modality is a particular way in which the information is to be encoded for presentation to humans, i.e. to the type of sign and to the status of reality ascribed to or claimed by a sign, text or genre. It is more closely associated with the semiotics of Charles Peirce than Saussure (1857-1913) because meaning is conceived as an and variables,[8] to study the effect of bilingualism Multilingualism is the use of two or more languages, either by an individual speaker or by a community of speakers. Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world's population. The generic term for a multilingual person is polyglot,[9] or to investigate the effect of emotions on interference.[10] A similar effect has also been observed in individuals with grapheme–color synesthesia, people who perceive colors when seeing certain numbers and letters. If a number or letter is presented to such an individual in a color other than what they would perceive, there is a delay in determining what color the character actually is.[11]

In the neo-Piagetian theories of cognitive development Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development was criticized on many grounds. One criticism is concerned with the very nature of development itself. It is suggested that Piaget's theory does not explain why development from stage to stage occurs. The theory is also criticized for ignoring individual differences in cognitive development. That is,, several variations of the Stroop task have been used to study the relations between speed of processing Reaction time , is the elapsed time between the presentation of a sensory stimulus and the subsequent behavioral response. RT is often used in experimental psychology to measure the duration of mental operations, an area of research known as mental chronometry. In psychometric psychology it is considered to be an index of speed of processing. That and executive functions The executive system is a theorized cognitive system in psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes. It is also referred to as the executive function, executive functions, supervisory attentional system, or cognitive control with working memory Working memory is the executive and attentional aspect of short-term memory involved in the interim integration, processing, disposal, and retrieval of information. Working memory tasks include the active monitoring or manipulation of information or behaviors. It is a theoretical construct within cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Theories and cognitive development Cognitive development is a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child's development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language learning, and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology. A large portion of research has gone into understanding how a child conceptualizes in various domains. This research shows that reaction time to Stroop tasks decreases systematically from early childhood through early adulthood. These changes suggest that speed of processing increases with age and that cognitive control becomes increasingly efficient. Moreover, this research strongly suggests that changes in these processes with age are very closely associated with development in working memory and various aspects of thought.[12][13]

Clinical use

The Stroop effect has been used to investigate the psychological capacities of a person since its discovery while during the twentieth century it also became a popular neuropsychological test Neuropsychological tests are specifically designed tasks used to measure a psychological function known to be linked to a particular brain structure or pathway. They usually involve the systematic administration of clearly defined procedures in a formal environment. Neuropsychological tests are typically administered to a single person working.[14]

There are different test variants commonly used in clinical settings Clinical neuropsychology is a sub-specialty of clinical psychology that specializes in the diagnostic assessment and treatment of patients with brain injury or neurocognitive deficits, with differences between them in the number of subtasks, type and number of stimulus, times for the task, or scoring procedures.[14][15] Regarding the number of subtasks, all versions have at least two: there are written color names differing from the ink used and in the first trial the participant has to say the written word and the ink in the second. However, there can be up to four different subtasks adding in some cases stimulus consisting of groups of letters "X" or dots printed in a given color with the participant having to say the color of the ink, or names of colors printed in black ink that have to be read.[14] The number of stimulus varies between less than twenty items to more than 150, being closely related to the scoring system used. While in some variants the score is the number of items from a subtask read in a given time, in others it is the time that it took to complete each of the trials.[14] The number of errors and different derived punctuations are also taken into account in some versions.[14]

This test is considered to measure selective attention Attention is the cognitive process of selectively concentrating on one aspect of the environment while ignoring other things. Attention has also been referred to as the allocation of processing resources, cognitive flexibility and processing speed, and it is used as a tool in the evaluation of executive functions The executive system is a theorized cognitive system in psychology that controls and manages other cognitive processes. It is also referred to as the executive function, executive functions, supervisory attentional system, or cognitive control.[14][15] An increased interference effect is found in disorders such as brain damage 'Brain damage' is a term no longer used today and has been replaced in recent decades by 'brain injury' ; meaning the destruction or degeneration of brain cells, often with an implication that the loss is significant in terms of functioning or conscious experience. It is a common and very broad in scope, such that in medicine a vast range of, dementias Dementia is a serious loss of cognitive ability in a previously unimpaired person, beyond what might be expected from normal aging. It may be static, the result of a unique global brain injury, or progressive, resulting in long-term decline due to damage or disease in the body. Although dementia is far more common in the geriatric population, it and other neurodegenerative diseases Neurodegeneration is the umbrella term for the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, including death of neurons. Many neurodegenerative diseases including Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, and Huntington’s occur as a result of neurodegenerative processes. As research progresses, many similarities appear which relate these diseases to, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder is a neurobehavioral developmental disorder. It is primarily characterized by "the co-existence of attentional problems and hyperactivity, with each behavior occurring infrequently alone" and symptoms starting before seven years of age, or a variety of mental disorders A mental disorder or mental illness is a psychological or behavioral pattern associated with distress or disability that occurs in an individual and is not a part of normal development or culture. The recognition and understanding of mental health conditions has changed over time and across cultures, and there are still variations in the such as schizophrenia Schizophrenia is a serious mental illness characterized by a disintegration of the process of thinking, of contact with reality, and of emotional responsiveness. It most commonly manifests as auditory hallucinations, paranoid or bizarre delusions, or disorganized speech and thinking with significant social or occupational dysfunction. Onset of, addictions The related concept of drug addiction has many different definitions. Some writers give in fact drug addiction the same meaning as substance dependence, others for example provide drug addiction a narrower meaning which excludes drugs without evidence of tolerance or withdrawal symptoms, and depression Major depressive disorder is a mental disorder characterized by an all-encompassing low mood accompanied by low self-esteem, and by loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. The term "major depressive disorder" was selected by the American Psychiatric Association to designate this symptom cluster as a mood disorder.[14][16]

Anatomical basis

The cingulate cortex has been related to the processing of the Stroop effect

EEG Electroencephalography is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 20–40 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In and functional neuroimaging Functional neuroimaging is the use of neuroimaging technology to measure an aspect of brain function, often with a view to understanding the relationship between activity in certain brain areas and specific mental functions. It is primarily used as a research tool in cognitive neuroscience, cognitive psychology, neuropsychology, and social studies of the Stroop effect have consistently revealed activation in the frontal lobe The frontal lobe is an area in the brain of mammals. It is located at the front of each cerebral hemisphere and positioned anterior to the parietal lobes and above and anterior to the temporal lobes. It is separated from the parietal lobe by the primary motor cortex, which controls voluntary movements of specific body parts associated with the and more specifically in the anterior cingulate cortex The cingulate cortex is a part of the brain situated in the medial aspect of the cortex. It includes the cortex of the cingulate gyrus, which lies immediately above the corpus callosum, and the continuation of this in the cingulate sulcus. The cingulate cortex is usually considered part of the limbic lobe, separate from the adjacent frontal and and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is the last area (45th) to develop (myelinate) in the human cerebrum. A more restricted definition of this area describes it as roughly equivalent to Brodmann areas 9 and 46, according to a broader definition DL-PFC consists of the lateral portions of Brodmann areas 9 – 12, of areas 45, 46, and the superior, two structures hypothesized to be responsible for conflict monitoring and resolution.[15] Accordingly patients with frontal lesions An acquired brain injury is damage to the brain acquired after birth. It usually affects cognitive, physical, emotional, social or independent functioning and can result from traumatic brain injury (i.e. accidents, falls, assaults, etc.) and nontraumatic brain injury (i.e. stroke, brain tumours, infection, poisoning, hypoxia, ischemia, obtain lower punctuations in the Stroop test when compared to those with more posterior lesions. However, these frontal regions are not the only ones implicated in the effect.[15] Stroop performance has also been associated with the correct functioning of the hippocampus The hippocampus is a major component of the brains of humans and other mammals. It belongs to the limbic system and plays important roles in long-term memory and spatial navigation. Like the cerebral cortex, with which it is closely associated, it is a paired structure, with mirror-image halves in the left and right sides of the brain. In humans or posterior brain areas.[15]

In popular culture

The Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day! Brain Age: Train Your Brain in Minutes a Day!, also known as Dr. Kawashima's Brain Training: How Old Is Your Brain? in PAL regions, is an entertainment video game that employs puzzles. It was developed and published by the video gaming company Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld video game console. Nintendo has been careful not to claim the game software program, produced by Ryūta Kawashima Kawashima was born May 23, 1959 in Chiba City, Chiba Prefecture, Japan. In the 1970s, he enrolled in Tōhoku University. After graduating with an MD at the school of medicine, he emigrated to Sweden to become a guest researcher at the famed Karolinska Institutet. He then moved back to Tōhoku and is now a resident Professor with tenure. He is for the Nintendo DS The Nintendo DS is a handheld game console developed and manufactured by Nintendo. It was released in 2004 in Canada, the United States, and Japan. The console features a clamshell design, similar to the Game Boy Advance SP, with two LCD screens inside—with the bottom one being a touchscreen. The Nintendo DS also features a built-in microphone portable video game A video game is an electronic game that involves interaction with a user interface to generate visual feedback on a video device. The word video in video game traditionally referred to a raster display device. However, with the popular use of the term "video game", it now implies any type of display device. The electronic systems used to system, contains an automated Stroop Test administrator module, translated into game form.[17] A Nova Nova is a popular science television series from the U.S. produced by WGBH Boston. It can be seen on the Public Broadcasting Service in the United States, and in more than 100 other countries. It has also won a variety of major television awards, most of them many times over episode used the Stroop Effect to illustrate the subtle changes of the mental flexibility of Mount Everest Mount Everest – also called Qomolangma Peak (Mount Sagarmāthā , Tibetan: ཇོ་མོ་གླང་མ; Chinese Zhumulangma Peak simplified Chinese: 珠穆朗玛峰; pinyin: Zhūmùlǎngmǎ Fēng), Chajamlangma (Limbu), or Mount Chomolangma – is the world's highest mountain above sea level at 8,848 metres (29,029 ft). Part of the climbers in relation to altitude.[18]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g Stroop, John Ridley (1935). "Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions". Journal of Experimental Psychology 18: 643–662. doi A digital object identifier is a character string used to uniquely identify an electronic document or other object. Metadata about the object is stored in association with the DOI name and this metadata may include a location, such as a URL, where the object can be found. The DOI for a document is permanent, whereas its location and other metadata:10.1037/h0054651. http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Stroop/. Retrieved 2008-10-08.
  2. ^ a b Jaensch, E.R (1929). Grundformen menschlichen Seins. Berlin: Otto Elsner.
  3. ^ a b Jensen AR, Rohwer WD (1966). "The Stroop color-word test: a review". Acta psychologica 25 (1): 36–93. doi A digital object identifier is a character string used to uniquely identify an electronic document or other object. Metadata about the object is stored in association with the DOI name and this metadata may include a location, such as a URL, where the object can be found. The DOI for a document is permanent, whereas its location and other metadata:10.1016/0001-6918(66)90004-7. PMID A PMID is a unique number assigned to each PubMed citation of life sciences and biomedical scientific journal articles. The related Pubmed Central archive may additionally assign a separate number, a PMCID (PubMed Central Identifier), normally written with a PMC prefix 5328883.
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i MacLeod CM (March 1991). "Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review". Psychological bulletin 109 (2): 163–203. doi A digital object identifier is a character string used to uniquely identify an electronic document or other object. Metadata about the object is stored in association with the DOI name and this metadata may include a location, such as a URL, where the object can be found. The DOI for a document is permanent, whereas its location and other metadata:10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.163. PMID A PMID is a unique number assigned to each PubMed citation of life sciences and biomedical scientific journal articles. The related Pubmed Central archive may additionally assign a separate number, a PMCID (PubMed Central Identifier), normally written with a PMC prefix 2034749. http://content.apa.org/journals/bul/109/2/163.
  5. ^ Golden, CJ (1978). Stroop Color and Word Test: A Manual for Clinical and Experimental Uses. Chicago, Illinois: Skoelting. pp. 1–32.
  6. ^ Pujol J, Vendrell P, Deus J, et al. (January 2001). "The effect of medial frontal and posterior parietal demyelinating lesions on stroop interference". NeuroImage 13 (1): 68–75. doi A digital object identifier is a character string used to uniquely identify an electronic document or other object. Metadata about the object is stored in association with the DOI name and this metadata may include a location, such as a URL, where the object can be found. The DOI for a document is permanent, whereas its location and other metadata:10.1006/nimg.2000.0662. PMID A PMID is a unique number assigned to each PubMed citation of life sciences and biomedical scientific journal articles. The related Pubmed Central archive may additionally assign a separate number, a PMCID (PubMed Central Identifier), normally written with a PMC prefix 11133310.
  7. ^ Kaufmann L, Ischebeck A, Weiss E, et al. (October 2008). "An fMRI study of the numerical Stroop task in individuals with and without minimal cognitive impairment". Cortex 44 (9): 1248–55. doi:10.1016/j.cortex.2007.11.009. PMID 18761138.
  8. ^ Roberts KL, Hall DA (June 2008). "Examining a supramodal network for conflict processing: a systematic review and novel functional magnetic resonance imaging data for related visual and auditory stroop tasks". Journal of cognitive neuroscience 20 (6): 1063–78. doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20074. PMID 18211237.
  9. ^ Rosselli M, Ardila A, Santisi MN, et al. (September 2002). "Stroop effect in Spanish-English bilinguals". Journal of the International Neuropsychological Society : JINS 8 (6): 819–27. doi:10.1017/S1355617702860106. PMID 12240746.
  10. ^ Kampman M, Keijsers GP, Verbraak MJ, Näring G, Hoogduin CA (2002). "The emotional Stroop: a comparison of panic disorder patients, obsessive-compulsive patients, and normal controls, in two experiments". Journal of anxiety disorders 16 (4): 425–41. doi:10.1016/S0887-6185(02)00127-5. PMID 12213037.
  11. ^ Ramachandran, V.S. and Edward M. Hubbard. "More Common Questions about Synesthesia. Scientific American online. April 14, 2003. URL accessed 2007-03-12.
  12. ^ Demetriou, A., Christou, C., Spanoudis, G., & Platsidou, M. (2002). The development of mental processing: Efficiency, working memory, and thinking. Monographs of the Society of Research in Child Development, 67, Serial Number 268.
  13. ^ Demetriou, A., Efklides, A., & Platsidou, M. (1993). The architecture and dynamics of developing mind: Experien¬tial structuralism as a frame for unifying cognitive developmental theories. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 58, Serial Number 234.
  14. ^ a b c d e f g Howieson, Diane Black; Lezak, Muriel Deutsch; Loring, David W. (2004). "Orientation and attention". Neuropsychological assessment. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 3365–367. ISBN 0-19-511121-4. http://books.google.es/books?id=FroDVkVKA2EC&pg=PA365. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
  15. ^ a b c d e Spreen, Otfried; Strauss, Esther; Elisabeth M. S. Sherman (2006). A compendium of neuropsychological tests: administration, norms, and commentary. Oxford [Oxfordshire]: Oxford University Press. pp. 477–499. ISBN 0-19-515957-8. http://books.google.com/books?id=dvE1mzbqI14C&pg=PA477&lpg. Retrieved 2009-03-06.
  16. ^ Lansbergen MM, Kenemans JL, van Engeland H (March 2007). "Stroop interference and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review and meta-analysis". Neuropsychology 21 (2): 251–62. doi:10.1037/0894-4105.21.2.251. PMID 17402825.
  17. ^ "Get the Scoop on Stroop". http://www.sciencebuddies.org/science-fair-projects/project_ideas/HumBeh_p031.shtml. Retrieved 2009-03-03.
  18. ^ Gail Rosenbaum (November 2000). "NOVA Online". http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/exposure/braintest.html. Retrieved 2008-10-14.

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In this experiment, with the partner (my partner was Shawn Park), we were suppose to find the time it would take for people to read colour in black and colour inks. In order to this, we have to design our own unique experiment with ...

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evidence to support the stroop effect?
Q. ive looked so hard for some evidence and psychologists that have supported the stroop effect and i cant find much at all does anyone know any or where i can find any please? thank you xxx
Asked by honk honk - Wed Dec 10 15:15:32 2008 - - 2 Answers - 0 Comments

A. Go to the library and ask the librarian to help you run a search on a database called "PsychInfo". That is where you will find real journal articles (actual research reports) on the Stroop effect. Best of luck, ~Dr. B.~
Answered by michele - Wed Dec 10 15:29:39 2008

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